Circumstances leading to the Martyrdom of Guru Arjan Dev

 The martyrdom of Guru Arjan Dev was the cumulative result of a variety of factors. Now the controversy revolves around the issue whether the Guru was a political offender, as the Persian and other writers like Mohsin Fani, S.M. Latif, Jadu Nath Sarkar, J.D. Cunningham etc. contend; or he fell a prey to the religious fanaticism of the Mughal emperor as Dr. I.B. Banerjee, Sir G.C. Narang, Macauliffe, Dr. H.R. Gupta,  Dr. Ganda Singh, Pr. Teja Singh etc. state.

The theory that Guru Arjan was a political offender is based on an excerpt from Tuzuq-i-Jahangiri. The supporters of this theory believe that the Guru was politically ambitious to have power in his own hands. The works he carried out had behind them his political objectives. As a result of these, the Sikhs had come to acquire the position of an imperium in imperio. In this organizational development of the Sikhs, Jahangir, the Mughal emperor, saw the impending danger to the stability of the Mughal Empire. The realization of the tax from the Sikhs, called Daswand, the appointment of the representatives at different places— the Masands, the establishment of the Sikh troops and the encouragement to the trade in horses—all these indicate the objectives of Guru Arjan.

But majority of the writers refute these views, the reasons being clear. Daswand was not a tax at all, but the Guru had directed his Sikhs to contribute one-tenth of their income for the development of the Church. It was by this only that the Guru could arrange his budget with much more certainty. Moreover, the Masands were appointed by the Guru in order to cope with the difficulties raised by the rapid increase in the number of the Sikhs. These Masands were the spiritual rather than the political representatives of the Guru. The encouragement to trade in horses dealt “an effective blow at the stringency of caste and Hindu superstitions, in breaking down the barrier which prevented the Hindus from crossing the Indus.”

In the Tuzuq, there is a reference to the political offence of the Guru, i.e. Guru Arjan helped Prince Khusrau during his revolt against his father, Jahangir. According to it, he had done so in order to achieve his political ends. Jahangir could not tolerate these rebellious activities on the part of Guru Arjan, and tortured him to death.

However, going into the details of the Tuzuq itself, we do not find any such objectives behind the Guru. Firstly, in the Tuzuq there is a list of the helpers of Khusrau. These helpers were punished by the emperor according to the gravity of their offence. But the name of Guru Arjan does not figure in it. Had Guru Arjan, at that time, played his alleged role in the rebellion, his name would have been included in it. One thing more, had the Guru been active in connection with the revolt, he might have issued the Hukumnamas for his Sikhs to join the army of Khusrau. But no such Hukumnama is found.

Moreover, Jahangir in his auto-biography mentions that the Guru blessed Khusrau for success and also marked tilak on the prince’s forehead, which is believed fortunate enough. However, as Dr. Ganda Singh comments that the marking of tilak was not prevalent in the Guru family or in the Mughals. So this allegation also seems to be baseless.

The above statements prove that the efforts to involve Guru Arjan in the revolt of Khusrau are meaningless. Thus it was the religious fanaticism of Jahangir, which compelled him to torture the Guru to death.

The organizational development of Sikhism under Guru Arjan and his predecessors was not tolerated by Jahangir, who wanted to convert the Guru to Islam, either peacefully or by compulsion, when he writes in the Tuzuq, “In Gobindwal, which is on the river Biyah (Beas), there is a Hindu named Arjun, in the garments of sainthood and sanctity, so much so that he has captured many of the simple-hearted of the Hindus, and even of the ignorant and foolish followers of Islam, by his ways and manners, and they had loudly sounded the drum of his holiness…They call him Guru, and from all sides stupid people crowded to worship and manifest complete faith in him. For three or four generations (of spiritual successors) they have kept this shop warm. Many times it occurred to me that to put a stop to this vain affair or to bring him into the assembly of the people of Islam.” When Jahangir failed to convert Guru Arjan to Islam, he tortured him physically, which ultimately resulted to his death.

The nobility and the members of the Sunni order of Islam felt hatred for the organizational development of Sikhism. This development had reduced the numerical strength of the Muslims in Punjab, which would also reduce their influence in the empire.

The enemies and even the kith and kin of the Guru participated as a factor in the martyrdom of Guru Arjan. Chandu Shah, the Dewan of Lahore, offered his daughter’s hand for Hargobind, the son of Guru Arjan. But the Guru rejected the offer, because of the haughtiness of Chandu Shah. He became very angry at this attitude of the Guru, and as says Sir G.C. Narang, “The Dewan was exasperated and resolved to punish he Guru for his insolence.”  Further, he says, “In all likelihood the part that Chandu could have played in this tragic episode was that as an official of the Government, he made a report to the Central Government in his official capacity about the incident mentioned by the Emperor.”

Prithia, the elder brother of Guru Arjan, was kept away from the guruship and he could not tolerate it. He always sought an opportunity when he could take his revenge from the Guru. Both Chandu and Prithia poisoned the ears of the emperor through Qazi Suleh Khan.

Jahangir was already waiting for an opportunity to take action against the Guru, and Khusrau’s revolt provided it. Guru Arjan’s involvement in this revolt was alleged. By the orders of the emperor, Guru Arjan was imprisoned and brought before him. The emperor asked him why he helped the rebel prince. The Guru’s reply was that his assistance to the prince had nothing to do with his opposition to the emperor. “Had I failed to show some kindness to the grandson of my former benefactor (Akbar), it would have been the height of heartlessness and ingratitude on my part.” But this reply of the Guru had no impact upon Jahangir.  He fined the Guru for Rs. two lakh and also omit those verses from the Adi Granth which opposed the religious sentiments of the Hindus as well as the Muslims. But the Guru refused to omit even a single word from the Holy Granth. For the payment of fine, he said that he would not pay even a single penny because “whatever money I have is for the poor, the friendless and the stranger.” He even prevented his Sikhs when they tried to collect money for his release. When the Guru refused to accept the terms, he “was forced to submit to infinite tortures which ultimately led to his death.” The torturers of the Guru poured boiling sand on him, seated him on red hot cauldrons and bathed him in boiling water. These physical tortures led to his death in June 1606 AD. Thus Dr. I.B. Banerjee sums up the causes of Guru Arjan’s martyrdom in these words: “The organizational strength of Sikhism, the Guru’s position as the leader of a fairly compact community and the facts that he was called a Sacha Padshah by his followers, and that he had compiled a book which did not spare the current perversions of both Hinduism and Islam, were all used to create a prejudice against the Guru.”

The martyrdom of Guru Arjan Dev is of great significance in the Sikh history. It brought about the transformation in the Sikh movement. So far, the Sikhs were known as a religious and spiritual community only, but now in self-defence they took to arms under the sixth Guru, Hargobind, for whom Guru Arjan had sent a message, “Let him sit fully armed on the throne and maintain an army to the best of his ability.” He organized his army and fortified the city of Amritsar, apart from giving military training to his Sikhs. This development was not ignored by the State “particularly as the organizational strength of Sikhism and its unified leadership made it a magnet which might at any time become a rallying point of disaffection.” Trumpp also observes that Guru Arjan’s martyrdom was a great turning point in the development of the Sikh community. With it started the struggle which changed the whole character of this reformatory religious movement.  Dr. Narang states that Guru Arjan opened the chapter of persecutions and he himself was destined to be the first to receive the ‘crown of martyrdom’.

Dr. I.B. Banerjee has approached the subject in these words: As a result of the reforms and more specially the organizational work carried out by Guru Arjan and his predecessors, ‘a State, peaceful and unobtrusive, had been slowly evolved and that the Sikh community had come to acquire the position of an imperium in imperio….By the year 1604, the Sikhs had become a more or less compact community, in command of an efficient and extensive organization reaching to the corners of the Province and even beyond….The spectacle of a religious teacher at the head of such an extensive organization and with a body of followers who had been taught that to sacrifice their all for the Guru was the highest and the most meritorious act, and whose sense of brotherhood and love for each other transcended all other feelings, could not but disturb the equanimity of the established State and clearly a crisis was coming when a direct conflict would be difficult to avoid.’

On the whole, it cannot be denied that it was the religious bigotry and cruelty of the Mohammedan government to which Guru Arjan fell a victim.

 

Development of Sikhism under Guru Arjan Dev

The pontificate of Guru Arjan Dev is very significant in the history of Sikhism. He adopted a number of measures for the development of the Sikh Church. He was a powerful organiser and a great statesman. That is why even the Muslim writer, S.M. Latif, also praises him, “He was an energetic and aspiring Guru, and his aims were high. He organised the Sikhs into a community, and devised measures for extending his spiritual authority.”
The first work undertaken by Guru Arjan was the construction of Harimandir in Amritsar. Guru Ram Das, the fourth Guru, had started the work of excavation of two tanks at Amritsar or 
Ramdaspur-- Amritsar and Santokhsar. As the work was left incomplete due to the death of Guru Ram Das, it was for Guru Arjan to complete it.
(A) Construction activities- 
(i) Construction of Harimandir- After the completion of both these tanks, Guru Arjan schemed to construct a temple in the midst of Amritsar. The temple was called Harimandir-- the Temple of God. The foundation stone of the temple was laid down by the famous Muslim Sufi saint-- Mian Mir, in 1589 AD. Some Sikhs counselled the Guru that the temple must be the highest of all other buildings nearby. But Guru Arjan denied it, because says the Guru : 
As the former Gurus had condemned the caste-system, Guru Arjan decided to stage four doors in this Temple, which meant that it is opened to all the persons belonging to any caste or any part of the world. A large number of Sikhs participated in this work of construction and performed the Sewa at the site as part of their daily routine. While the work was going on, the news about the outstanding project of the unique pilgrimage under construction spread far and wide. Devotees of the Guru contributed share from their earning to the construction fund. The construction of the Harimandir was completed in 1601 AD. 
The construction of the Harimandir was significant in many ways. Dr. I.B. Banerjee states, “This was of the greatest importance for the firm establishment of Sikhism, for the Sikhs obtained thereby a fixed central place of worship.” Secondly, the Guru declared that its travel would be equate 68 visits to the Hindu pilgimages. Now the Sikhs had no need to visit such places as Benaras, Hardwar etc. He even asked his Sikhs to settle in Amritsar and deal in trade. The Harimandir came to be known as the Mecca of the Sikhs. Sir G.C. Narang observes, “It became, in fact, the capital and metropolis of the infant commonwealth that the genius of Arjan was gradually and peacefully building up.”
(ii) Foundation of new towns- Twenty two miles towards south from Amritsar was founded the town of Tarn Taran. A tank was excavated and the Guru declared that whoever took bath in the tank would get salvation. An Ashram was founded for the lepers, and the arrangement was made of free food, dress and medicines for them. The foundation of this town is of immense importance in the development of Sikhism, for a number of Jats from Majha joined Sikhism and later on proved to be great soldiers. According to Dr. Banerjee, “People of this tract have always formed the backbone of the Sikh community.”
In 1593 AD, Guru Arjan lay down the foundation of a new town near Jalandhar-- Kartarpur, literally meaning the place of God. He also excavated a tank here, called Gangasar and declared that its water had the sacredness equal to the water of the Ganges. The new town became an important preaching centre in the Bist Doab.
On the banks of the river Beas, he founded the town of Hargobindpur in 1595 AD, on the birth of his son, Hargobind.
(iii) Construction of a Baoli- At Lahore, he made arrangements for the construction of a Baoli at Dabbi Bazar. The Baoli became another place of pilgrim for the Sikhs. It was, however, filled with mud in 1628 AD, on the orders of the Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan.
(B) Masand system- The organization and development of the Masand system is one of his most important achievements. There is much controversy on the view whether it was Guru Ram Das or Guru Arjan Dev, who established the Masand system. Mostly, the historians stress on the fact that the system was established by Guru Ram Das. However, Dr. Hari Ram Gupta denies this opinion and states that it was in the days of Guru Arjan that the Masands were appointed.
Be whatsoever it may be, it can’t be denied that it was under Guru Arjan that the Masand system had been organized and fully developed. The number of the Sikhs, in fact, was increasing rapidly in the time of the fifth Guru. He had, therefore, taken in his hands the construction work of many tanks and towns. For this work and also to continue the Langar system started by Guru Nanak, money was needed badly. Money collected by the means of offerings by the Sikhs was not definite. Moreover, times were seen when contributions made by the Sikhs did not reach to the Guru. Therefore, the Guru ordered his Sikhs to pay one-tenth of their income, known as Daswand, for the Church. This Daswand was collected by the appointed deputies of the Guru, called the Masands. The Masands deposited all the money to the treasury of the Guru on the day of Baisakhi. Complete accounts of money were kept. The Masands were ordered by the Guru not to use even a single penny on themselves out of the collections, and warned of severe physical troubles to those who didi not abide by this order. The Masands had further appointed their own deputies, known as Masandias, to perform the duties for the Masands at the regions afar, where the Masands themselves could not go.
The Masands also preached the message of the Guru in their areas. When they visited Amritsar on the first day of Baisakh, to pay the contributions collected from the Sikhs, they informed the Guru about the Sikhs in their respective regions and sometimes even accompanied with them many devoted of them.
Some writers have charged the Guru having political motives behind the establishment of this institution. As Trumpp writes that “the Sikhs were gradually accustomed to a kind of government of their own and began to feel themselves as a firmly organised and strong party within the State.” S.M. Latif also confirms this contention, “He organised a system of taxation and appointed delegates for the purposes of collecting it from his followers throughout the country.... Thus were the Sikhs accustomed to a regular system of government, and, having been formed into a community, gradually developed into a real power.” But hardly does any truth appear in it, because
    - Daswand was not a tax, but a contribution or Nazrana.
    - The Masand were the deputies of the Guru, who preached the religious message of the Guru and           collected money from the Sikh followers.
    - Moreover, the title of Sacha Padshah, as the Sikhs used to address their Guru, indicated his spiritual        supremacy.
The institution of Masand left some important impact on the Sikh history. First of all, the Daswand gave the definite income to the Sikh Church. For this reason, the new towns could be established and the Langar system could be carried on successfully. Secondly, the Masands played an important role in the development of the Church. They brought the Sikhs quite close to the Guru in one instance, even though they were residing very far from the Punjab. They collected money from them and also gave them the mesage of the Guru. Dr. G.C. Narang observes, “The Guru could now arrange his budget with more certainty as the dues of the Guru were paid more readily and unfailingly than even the Mughal revenues.”
(C) Trade in horses- Guru Arjan encouraged his Sikhs to engage in the profession of trade in horses with the countries beyond the Indus. It became very significant for the Sikhs. It gave a severe death-blow to the caste-system. The Sikhs used to go beyond the Indus for this trade while the Hindu society prohibited to cross the oceans. This trade made the Sikhs a prosperous community and also increased the income of the Church. By trading in horses, the Sikhs were able to get knowledge of the best breed of horses, and it helped them in becoming a race of warriors.
(D) Compilation of the Adi Granth- The compilation of the Adi Granth is known as the crowning achievement of his life. The number of the Sikhs had increased rapidly during the life time of the fifth Guru. It was impossible for all the Sikhs to be present before the Guru. Moreover, many persons like Prithia, had started to narrate their own verses in the name of the Gurus. Therefore, to give the complete and authentic verses of the Gurus, Guru Arjan felt the neccesity to provide the Sikhs with a copy which consisted of all the verses of the Sikh Gurus.
Guru Arjan collected the verses of the first three Gurus from Baba Mohan, son of Guru Amar Das. The verses of Guru Ram Das were already with him, while he added his own to them. Guru Arjan also made selections from the compositions of various saints, both Hindu and Muslims. Whose principles he found in accordance with those of the Sikh Gurus, were also placed in the Granth, which was compiled on the banks of the tank Ramsar. The compilation of the Granth was named the ‘Adi Granth’. It was written out by Bhai Gurdas at the dictation of Guru Arjan, and the work was completed in 1604 AD after much arduous labour. The compilation was a very significant step of Guru Arjan. It gave the Sikhs a sacred religious Granth. It infused a new spirit into the minds of the followers of the Guru.
(E) Sacrifice for religion- Guru Arjan sacrificed his life for the sake of Sikhism. When Jahangir became the Mughal emperor in 1605 AD, he ordered for the execution of Guru Arjan, which is believed to be on the grounds of the rapid development of the mission under him. The revolt of Prince Khusro gave the emperor an opportunity to strike at. According to Sir G.C. Narang, “He was not only the first great organizer of the Sikh nation, but was also destined to be the first to receive the crown of martyrdom.”

The twenty-five years (1581-1606 AD) of the guruship of Arjan mark an important phase in the history of Sikhism. It was in this period that the Sikhism exhibited its independent identity and showed clear signs of difference from the Hindu orthodoxy. The Guru’s martyrdom brought transformation in the Sikh Church, when the Sikhs sought it expedient under Guru Hargobind to raise arms to defend their organised sect against the fanatic Islamic government.

Contribution of Guru Amar Das towards the development of Sikhism

Dr. I.B. Banerjee writes, “Guru Angad had, no doubt, done something to give the Sikhs an individuality of their own, but it was under Amar Das that the difference between a Sikh and an orthodox Hindu became more pronounced.”

Guru Nanak, after his enlightenment, strove hard to convey his message to as large a number of people as possible. For this purpose he first took long and arduous journeys not only within India but also abroad, and had converted a good number of people as his followers. But Nanak had laid stress, more or less, on the fundamentals of his teachings, leaving the details to take care of themselves. In fact, he had made no direct innovations, particularly so far as social usages were concerned and there was nothing much that could distinguish the followers of Nanak from the general Hindu mass.

The founder of the Sikh religion, being conscious of the incomplete nature of his work, had taken the necessary precaution of nominating one of his most trusted followers, Lehna, a house-holder, to the guruship as Guru Angad.

The supreme need of the moment was to clothe Guru’s message with some distinctive emblems which  might give it an individuality of its own. As such, Guru Angad being well-aware of his responsibility having ascended the guruship adopted a number of measures for the organizational development of Sikhism.

Guru Angad introduced or popularized the Gurumukhi script among the Sikhs.  This script reminded the Sikhs of their duty towards their Guru, and “constantly kept alive in their minds the consciousness that they were something distinct from the common mass of Hinduism.” It also gave a severe blow to the monopolistic language of Sanskrit and the priestly classes. On the whole, it gave a definite language for the scriptures of Sikhism, when later on Guru Arjan compiled the Adi Granth. Secondly, Guru Angad collected the verses of  Guru Nanak and added to them the verses of his own. Thus it avoided the verses from being forgotten or inter-mixed and also provided a barrier against the wrong-preachers in the name of Nanak. The institution of Langar was elaborated by Guru Angad by the joint efforts and sacrifices of the Sikhs. The Langar system played an important part to differentiate the Sikhs from the orthodox Hindus. It gave a severe blow to the caste-system. It served as a great bond of union among the Sikhs. Moreover, Guru Angad kept his Sikhs aloof from the Udasism of Baba Sri Chand, which was becoming a great danger to Sikhism. Guru Angad declared that Sikhism had no place for ascetics, but was wholly a religion for the house-holders. Due to this separation, the Sikhs got something of a social character in addition to the religious ties that held them together.

Thus Guru Angad had succeeded in giving a sort of local habitation and a name to the mission of Nanak. Besides the Guru, whose position as the sole and supreme religious leader was in itself a great source of unity and solidarity, the Sikhs had now the Guru’s hymns inscribed in their own Gurumukhi and the Langar maintained by their joint efforts and sacrifices. They could now claim an individuality of their own, however imperfect as yet it might have been.

But the danger of the absorption of the followers of Nanak still lingered on because there was nothing as yet which could distinguish the Sikhs as a distinct social community from that of the Hindus. As the followers of Sikhism still performed their social ceremonies connected with marriage, death etc. in the traditional Hindu way with the aid of the priestly classes, they continued to visit the places of pilgrimage of the Hindus as well.

Guru Amar Das immediately after his pontification realized the danger in which Sikhism stood and adopted the following distinctive measures to keep up their separate identity :

In 1552 AD, the work for the construction of a Baoli in Goindwal started. The Sikhs joined enthusiastically in the work of construction and after seven years, the task was accomplished. The Baoli was provided with 84 steps and Guru Amar Das said, “Whosoever should attentively and reverently repeat the Japji at every step, should escape from wandering in the wombs of 84 lakhs of living creatures.” In this way, Goindwal was raised to the status of a place of pilgrimage.Now the Sikhs felt no necessity to visit the pilgrim places of the Hindus. This measure of Guru Amar Das differentiate the Sikhs from the common Hindus.

Guru Angad had started the process of the compilation of the hymns, but the task could not be accomplished before his death. Guru Amar Das carried on this work with great enthusiasm and compiled the verses of Guru Nanak and Guru Angad. Sant Ram, the son of Baba Mohan (Guru Amar Das’ son), compiled 907 verses of his grand-father. Guru Amar Das ordered the compiler of the verses of the Gurus to “make a careful collection of the Gurus’ hymns and give them to the Sikhs in God’s name.” This measure of Guru Amar Das completely differentiated the Sikhs from the Hindus as the Sikhs got their own holy hymns and now felt no need to recite the Hindu scriptures.

The elaboration of the Langar institution under Guru Amar Das was another factor differing the Sikhs from Hinduism. The Langar was open to all. According to Macauliffe, “All who came to visit him were fed to repletion. None departed disappointed. What he daily received was daily spent and nothing was saved for the morrow.” The Guru even obliged all visitors and Sikhs to partake of food from the Langar before seeing him. In the Hindu society, people of high castes hated those of the lower castes. They were socially boycotted being considered as untouchables. But this institution knew no caste distinction and clarified that the Sikhs were different from the Hindus.

The institution of Manji was also an important factor which worked in differing the Sikhs from the Hindus. Guru Amar Das divided his spiritual empire into 22 units known as the Manjis. The head of each Manji was called Manjidar. Each Manji was sub-divided into Piris under the Piridars. This division was seen only in Sikhism and the Sikhs came into direct contact of the Guru through these Manjidars. These Manjidars acted as a binding the Guru and the Sikhs. They gave the message of the Guru to the Sikhs and collected donations from them, which were deposited with the Guru for the development activities. The Sikhs found themselves in contact with their Guru through these Manjidars. The Manjidars suppressed the importance of the priestly classes among the Sikhs as they were appointed by the Guru himself.

Guru Amar Das also undertook certain reformative tasks in the social field. There were many evils in the Hindu society; but people did not regard them as evils. However, to act upon them was considered   as performing a religious ceremony. The condition of women in the society was very deplorable. One such evil was the practice of Sati, i.e. the burning of widows at the funeral pyre of their husbands. But Guru Amar Das condemned this practice and prohibited his Sikhs to adopt it. In one of his verses he observed-

                “Women are burnt in the fire with their husbands,

                    If they appreciate their husbands they undergo sufficient pain by their death,

                    O Nanak! if they appreciate not their husbands, why should they be burnt?”

Not only did he condemn the Sati system, but also favoured widow remarriage and took several steps to popularize it. He also ordered the Sikh women to avoid the Purdah system as he considered the Purdah as an obstacle in the physical, mental and spiritual development of the women.

Guru Amar Das also criticized the use of intoxicants and ordered his Sikhs to abstain altogether from them. He told his Sikhs not to drink that false wine “by which man forgeteth God and receiveth punishment at His court.”

Guru Amar Das also directed his Sikhs to celebrate the festivals in different modes. The Sikhs were to celebrate only these festivals-- Baisakhi, Diwali and Maghi. On these auspicious occasions, the Sikhs were to reach Goindwal and then celebrate these fesivals at the direction of their Guru.

The performance of the ceremonies of birth, marriage and death also differed a Sikh from a Hindu. The Lavan composed by Bhai Jetha, the son-in-law of Guru Amar Das, on his marriage began to be recited on the marriage occasions by the Sikhs. Similarly, Guru Amar Das composed the Anand Geet (Song of Joy) of 38 Pauris, on the birth of his grandson, Sidh jogi. Since then this song is recited by the Sikhs on occasions of rejoicings. It was enjoined upon the Sikhs that the Guru’s words be recited while celebrating the marriages of their relatives. In the Sadd hymns, Guru Amar Das narrates to his Sikhs neither to call the Pandit nor to read the ‘Garuda Purana’ while performing the death ceremonies of their relatives. In this way, the Sikhs started to differ from Hinduism.

Dr. I.B. Banerjee feels that two parallel developments can be traced in Sikhism. On the one hand, the work begun by Guru Angad was earnestly continued and new religious ties were added one after another. On the other, there was a gradual drifting away from the orthodox Hindu society and attempts were made through innovations to bring into existence a new brotherhood, social as well as religious, self-sufficient and independent. Dr. G.C. Narang also states that from the outset Sikhism stood distinguished from other reform movements by its reconciliation with secular life.

Under the auspices of Guru Amar Das, the name of the infant Church spread far and wide, rudiments of a separate organisation were given to the Sikhs, and new forms and practices were introduced to supersede the old and bind the newly converts more closely together. Hence Dr. I.B. Banerjee rightly observes, “Guru Angad had, no doubt, done something to give the Sikhs an individuality of their own; but it was under Amar Das that the difference between a Hindu and a Sikh became more pronounced.”

Contribution of Guru Angad Dev towards the development of Sikhism

 

Dr. Indu Bhushan Banerjee has pointed out to the truest sense of the word that Guru Angad’s nomination is very significant in the Sikh history. Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism, had strove hard after his enlightenment to convey his message to as large number of people as possible. Keeping this objective in mind, he first undertook long and arduous journeys not only within India but also abroad, and converted a large number of people as his followers. Nanak had, more or less, laid stress on the fundamentals of his teachings, leaving the details to take care of themselves. Still, being consciousness of the incomplete nature of his work, he had taken a very necessary precaution of nominating one of his trusted followers, Lehna, a householder, as his successor with the new name of Guru Angad.

This act of Guru Nanak was significant in more ways than one. Like other saints of the Bhakti cult, Guru Nanak had also laid stress upon the necessity of a Guru—a spiritual guide. In his verses he observed that a Guru is like a captain of a ship, who helps his followers to cross the ‘Bhav-Sagar’. Nanak not only observed likewise, but even translated his message, concerning the necessity of the Guru, into action by establishing the institution of Guruship and appointing Angad as the second Sikh Guru.

Guru Nanak had with his remarkable vigor and zeal given his message all over India and abroad. For this purpose, he had walked in all the four corners of India, Ceylon and the West Asian countries. But it seemed certain that after his death his teachings might be forgotten. A number of Hindus and Muslims had become his followers; but their disintegration was certain had Nanak not appointed any successor. Guru Angad carried on Nanak’s teachings amongst the Sikhs and thus saved this infant sect from its early death. Dr. G.C. Narang rightly points it, “Had Nanak died without a successor there would have been no Sikhism today or at the best simply another Kabirism.” The nomination placed the movement under the guidance of Angad and gave a distinct character to it.

The nomination of Guru Angad also avoided the hereditary conflicts, as were to be seen from the period of Guru Arjan Dev.

Moreover, Guru Nanak had in his teachings condemned the Sanyasis and yogis, who were opposed to the worldly or materialist life and gave stress only on the worship of God. According to them, the worldly cares a great hindrance in worshipping God whole-heartedly. Bu Guru Nanak had advised his followers to reconcile with the worldly life. He believed that the life of a house-holder is worth living. He even preferred Bhai Lehna, a house-holder, in nominating him to guruship in place of his own son, Sri Chand, who was a recluse.

Contribution of Guru Angad to the development of Sikhism

Following are the contributions made by Guru Angad towards the development of Sikhism:

1.      Introduction of the Gurumukhi script: The Sikh chronicles ascribe Guru Angad with the introduction of the Gurumukhi script. However, a group of writers refuse to accept it on two grounds-

(a)    Guru Angad was himself unlettered, as E. Trump writes, “Guru Angad was altogether unlettered and could himself neither read or write. The later tradition which makes him the inventor of the Gurumukhi letters, is therefore, without any foundation.”

(b)   In Rag Asa, there is a Patti of 35 verses, each beginning with a letter of the alphabet, which belong to the same 35 alphabets of Gurumukhi.

Trumpp’s view that Guru Angad was ‘unlettered’ and could neither read nor write does not seem plausible. In fact, as Macauliffe states, he adopted the Punjabi alphabet, brought about amendments in it and gave it the name of Gurumukhi. Grierson’s views also seem to be acceptable. According to him, the rue script of the Punjab was known as the Mahajani script (Landa). This script was defective and was usually misread. Being the son of a trader, he was also formal to it. Hence he borrowed from the Devnagri script and polished up the forms of the Mahajani script. This new script came to be known as the Gurumukhi script.

Dr. I.B. Banerjee observes that the verses of Nanak in Rag Asa might have been originally composed in the Mahajani script and later on transliterated into Gurumukhi with necessary amendments. He may not be the inventor, and had merely adopted and modified the one already existing and given it a new name.

The Gurumukhi script was remarkable in many ways-

-          It served the measures of Guru Angad. Mahajani script was knowledgable to the people. When Guru Angad made amendments in it, it became easier for the people to understand it.

-          He made it the script of the Sikhs. Now they used it even in their daily routine. It reminded at once that the user was a Sikh.

-          Its utilization also minimized the chances of the Sikhs being misled about what the Guru had said.

-          It gave a severe blow to the monopoly of Sanskrit as the only language of divinity. With the superiority of Sanskrit, the priestly class of the Hindu society had made itself important, because they were the only class well-versed in Sanskrit. With its help, they used to exploit the common masses. But the popularity of Gurumukhi among the Sikhs gave a severe blow to the Hindu priestly class.

-          It gave a definite script for the scriptures of Sikhism, when later on Guru Arjan Dev compiled the Adi Granth.

2.      Compilation of Nanak’s biography: According to the Sikh chronicles, Guru Angad got compiled a biography of Guru Nanak. Bhai Bala, a follower and a friend of Guru Nanak, was asked to narrate all the incidents of the life of Guru Nanak and a person, named Paira, was ordered  to write the same.

However. The above theory seems to be untenable on following grounds-

(a)    Bhai Bala was too close to Guru Nanak, but when he first visited Guru Angad, he had to introduce himself. How is it possible that the two close disciples of a Guru don’t know each other.

(b)   The language in this biography does not belong to the times of Guru Angad, but is of the early 17^th century.

(c)    There is no reference of Bhai Bala in any other biographies. No even Bhai Gurdas has mentioned his name in his Var I, while he has included the names of many others Bhai Mardana and Bhai Lehna in it.

It is suggested that Guru Angad had secured the horoscope of Guru Nanak from his uncle Lalu, and got it translated into Gurumukhi.

3.      Collection of the hymns of Guru Nanak- The hymns of Guru Nanak were scattered at various places. Guru Angad collected all of them which were known orally by then. The work continued in the days of Guru Amar Das as well. Thus Guru Angad got the started the work for the compilation of Adi Granth, which was ultimately compiled by Guru Arjan Dev.     

The collection of these hymns saved them from being forgotten or inter-mixed. It also provided a barrier against those selfish elements who had wrongly preached in the name of Nanak.

4.   Elaboration of the Langar institution- Guru Nanak had preached his message of Equality, when he started the institution of Sangat and Langar. Guru Angad not only continued the Langar, but contributed much for its stability and progress. More and more kitchens were started. It is stated that at Khadur Sahib, the system worked under Mata Khivi ji, the wife of Guru Angad. The Langar was prepared from one kitchen and all the followers of the Guru partook the food without any distinction of caste or creed. The faithful Sikhs made contributions for the maintenance of Langar institution. According to Dr. G.C. Narang, “The Langar of the Guru was probably the first to be supported by the combined contributions of a community, and it taught the Sikhs the first lesson of contributing money towards a common fund.” The Langar also served the poor and the orphans.

-          It played an important part to differentiate the Sikhs from the Hindus. It gave a severe blow to the caste-system.

-          It also served a great bond of unity among the Sikhs.

-          Moreover, as Dr. I.B. Banerjee comments, it proved a powerful aid in the propaganda work. It made Sikhism very much popular.

5.      Condemnation of Udasism- Guru Nanak had condemned asceticism. In his order, he had no room for it. He remained indifferent to all the worldly affairs. Even when he finally settled at Kartarpur, he resumed his family ties. Guru Nanak had told in his message that every man should lead his life in the family and only there should he try to find salvation, but “abide pure amidst the impurities of the world, so shall you succeed.”

After the death of Guru Nanak, his eldest son, Baba Sri Chand, set up a new order. He discarded the world and sought consolation in the undisturbed meditation of the True One in the solemn silence of the forest or the hill. A number of people, including the Sikhs, became his followers and came to known as the Udasis. Besides unmarried life and asceticism, the other tenets of the sect were the same those of Guru Nanak. The followers of this sect also had the same regard for the first Guru as the Sikhs had. The primary aim of Baba Sri Chand in setting up the Udasi sect , as Dr. Madanjit Kaur observes, was to propagate the mission of his father in his own way.

There was a danger that the Sikhs would mingle up with the Udasis. It became very important that the fundamental character of Sikhism was determined once for all, as the future of the movement depended upon it. Guru Angad very boldly told the Sikhs that the principles of Udasis were contrary to the message of Guru Nanak. Therefore, those Sikhs who had belief in asceticism, were not to be called the Sikhs. The result was that the Sikhs separated themselves from the passive and recluse Udasis. Consequently the Sikhs got something special as the sectarian ties held them together.

6.      Composition of the Hymns: Guru Angad himself composed 62 hymns, which are compiled in the Adi Granth.

7.      Foundation of Goindwal: Guru Angad founded a new town, Goindwal, near Khadur  Sahib. He entrusted one of his staunch follower, Amar Das, to accomplish this task. Later on, during the guruship of Amar Das ji, Goindwal became the main centre of the activities of Sikhim.

8.      Discipline in Sikhism: Guru Angad Dev laid stress on discipline among the Sikhs. He expelled the two singers—Satta and Balwand—from his court, as they had become haughty and even started claiming that they were the factors for the fame of the Guru. When the two singers observed their fault and repented. Later on, Guru Angad forgave them after he mediation of Bhai Laddha. However, this act of Guru Angad raised the importance of discipline among the Sikhs.

 Guru Angad carried on the tradition of nominating his successor. Before his death, he appointed his follower, Amar Das, as his successor.

It was thus because of this nomination that Sikhism carried on its consolidation and developed rapidly. Dr. Narang’s statement appears to be true to the point, “Had Nanak died without a successor, there would have been no Sikhism today or at the best another Kabirism.” Moreover, the organizational development of Sikhism would not have taken place in that case. Hence Dr. I.B. Banerjee aptly remarks, “The nomination of Angad to the Guruship is a fact of profoundest significance in Sikh history.”

The Sant Tradition

“It was this Sant tradition which provided the basis of Guru Nanak’s thoughts and inheritance, which like Kabir, he re-interpreted in the light of his own personality and experience.” (W.H. McLeod)

The essence of religion for the vast majority of Nanak’s contemporaries, both Hindus and Muslims, consisted in external authority and conventional ceremony. In case of the Hindus, this authority was generally accorded to the priestly classes and through them to the Vedas and the Puranas. The existence required consisted in the performance of a host of conventional rites and customs appropriate to a man’s status within the caste-structure of the society. In case of the Muslims, religion was likely to an objective authority namely Tura and exercise of this authority was the acknowledged function of the Qazis.

However, by the time of Nanak, this conventional pattern of religion both of the Hindus as well as Muslims had ceased to command universal acceptance. In fact, for quite some time past, these conventional patterns had received and were still receiving challenges and there were coming into existence a number of dissenting movements. Of these, the following were particularly to be noted :

(i) First was the tradition of Vaishnava Bhakti, which had spread to Northern India from the South, and whose representative in North India was Ramanand. For the Vaishnava Bhakti, the essential religious response was devotion and this devotion was directed to one of the incarnations of Lord Vishnu.

(ii) The second movement was the ancient tradition of tantrik yoga, expressed in Northern India during the period of our study by a host of recluses, popularly known as Nath Yogis or Kanfata Sadhus. This was, in itself, sub-divided into various seb-sects, claiming allegiance to the semi-legendary Gorakh Nath. All of them essentially followed the Hatha-Yoga.

(iii) The third of these movements is symbolized by the numbers of the Sufi order, numerically lower than the followers of the other two movements. Yet these Sufis exercised greater influence on both the Hindus and the Muslims.

A close examination of these three movements would reveal that there was a cognizable continuity within each one of these, but none was completely insulated. All the three were to some extent influenced by one or more of others and hence underwent necessary modifications. However, in one case, this reciprocal exchange did not simply result in the modification of an existing tradition, but in the emergence of a remarkable synthesis, a new pattern which in various respects strongly resembled the other existing patterns but which in its wholeness correspond to none of them. This was the Sant tradition of Northern India.

The new movement was by no means the dominant religious tradition during this period, but it was certainly the most fertile and understanding of this Sant tradition.

The Sant tradition was essentially a synthesis of the three principal dissenting movements, a compound of elements drawn mainly from Vaishnava Bhakti and the Hatha Yoga, with a marginal contribution from Sufism. The essential religious response from the Sants and the Vaishnava Bhakts being love, the two have sometimes been confused by the writers who considered the Sant tradition just as an aspect of Vaishnava Bhakti.

But a close scrutiny would reveal that despite apparent similarities, the two -- namely the Sant tradition and the Vaishnava Bhakti-- differed widely from each other. These differences are of fundamental importance. To give one example, the love of the Vaishnava Bhaktas was directed to an Avatar or incarnation of God, whereas in the Sant tradition, it was directed to the Supreme Being Himself, there being no place for the intermediaries, such as incarnations. Further, whereas in case of Vaishnava Bhaktas, this love for incarnation was expressed through the media of images, that of the Sants was to involve oneself in meditation and devotion. In the Sant tradition, the stress was on a method which involved, if not intense sufferings, at least, some appreciable difficulties. It was definitely different from the Sahaj Bhakti (Easy Path) suggested by the Vaishnava Bhaktas.

Despite these differences, it were the Bhakti elements which provided the principal contribution to the Sant synthesis particularly in its early years. Traces of Nath influence are, no doubt, there in the earlier stages as well, but they became more pronounced during the later stages. In fact, it is at the time of Kabir that the Nath concepts assume a significant role. In the thought of Kabir, such concepts are more prominent and integral and it is at this point that the synthesis is fully developed. The Nath influence emerges in much of the basic terminology used by Kabir, and later on by Nanak, in a rejection of all exterior forms, ceremonies, caste-distinction, sacred language and scriptures in a strong emphasis upon unity as opposed to duality.

It is, therefore, not without significance that the common of all the terms used by both Nanak and Kabir to express their experience of Union as Sahaj -- a term which at once takes us back to the Nath theory and still earlier to the Tantrik Buddhism.

The Sants were monotheists. But God, with whom they sought the union was not an anthromorphic God. He was manifested through his immense in His Creation. As such, the love of these Sants was to express through meditation on the Divine Name and not on the worship of of any external idol or exercise of practices like visit to the places of pilgrimage, or taking bath in so-called Holy waters of a tank. Like the bhaktas, the stress was made on efficacy and the need of a Spritual Guru, and this Guru might or might not be a human being, but the Inner Voice of God.

Another notable distinction of the Sants is that they expressed their beliefs not in the traditional Sanskrit, but in a language which was closely related to that of the common people to whom these teachings were addressed in various parts of the country. In its ultimate form, it aimed to be called Sadhukari (Sant language) having in its elements drawn from old Rajasthani, Apabhramsa and Persian with Khari Boli.

The first great Sant was Namdev, who lived in Maharashtra and is closely associated with the Varkari sect -- a sect within the Bhakti tradition in which the worship is centered on the famous idol of Lord Vithal, an incarnation of Lord Krishna. Elements of traditional Vaishnava Bhakti is evident in Namdeva’s work, but his main emphasis is in accord with the Sant concepts.

The second important Sant was Ravi Das, an outcaste leather-worker of Benaras. He belongs to the earlier stage of the Sant movement and rejects the concept of Divine Avatar, as also all external aids which are aids to worship. In his works the stress is on the imminence of God in external phenomena. Ravi Das makes the characteristic Sant emphasis with an evident stress upon the irrelevancy of the caste-system.

With Kabir, the Sant tradition moves into a more complicated phase. The compositions attributed to Kabir are indeed innumerable, of which two famous are Kabir Granthavali and the rigid Bijak.

The basis of Kabir’s religious belief was Tantrik Yoga. Though his Muslim name would suggest the Islamic influence, this Tantrik Yoga as the basis of his religious belief should not take us to believe that he was a Nath Yogi. To this background of Tantrik Yoga, Kabir clearly added the elements from Vaishnava hakti, and to some extent even Sufism. That he is indebted to the ‘Bhaktas’ is evident in the primacy he attaches to love, but his concept of love as a way of suffering is derived from Sufism. It is with these and other elements from the same sources that Kabir compounded his own mystical nature and brought about a synthesis which is the distinctive religion of Kabir. It is a religion which in true Sant style renounces all, i.e. external; affirming that God may by Grace reveal Himself within a man’s soul. But the revelation comes to him only who has prepared himself to see Him. The preparation is the path of Love, a love addressed directly to the Supreme Being, who is both transcendent and immanent, and a love which will inevitably involve long periods in the anguish of separation. The point at which this revelation occurs cannot be foreseen. It comes at the point of Divine initiative and all of a sudden. God, through the True Guru (Satguru), discharges the arrow of Word (Shabad) and man is slain, that in Death he may find True Life. This life is to be found in mystical Union and ineffable experience of dissolution in the Divine.

It must not be forgotten that there is much in Kabir’s attempts which remain obscure and cannot be explained fully. The works of Kabir show that he is certainly influenced by monotheistic concepts, but it is his own understanding of the nature of God that is important and on this account his thought must be regarded as monotheistic. In the works of Kabir, we find a representation of the highly personal ray of an individual experience. But they never place him within the famous Sant beliefs.

It was this Sant tradition which provided the basis of Guru Nanak’s thoughts, and inheritance which like Kabir, he re-interpreted in the light of his own personality and experience. This again should not mean that Nanak was, in any real term, a disciple of Kabir.Sant tradition was by far the most important element in all that Nanak inherited from his past or absorbed from his contemporaries.

Still the question persists regarding the antecedants of Nanak’s thought -- that indirect influences created upon his Sant traditions in an independent way. The dominant issue in this case is to assess the extent of his deterness to Islamic sources for whatever influence the Nath beliefs may have exercised  upon Nanak’s religious thoughts came through the indirect channel of Sant inheritance and the Nath concepts when congregated through Sant channels and underwent a great deal of transformation in their meanings. 

Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen: Career and Principles

The man who freed China from its 4000 years old absolute monarchy and whose ruling principle was “The Earth and the Universe belong to everyone” was none other than Dr. Sun Yat Sen. In the event, of which he was the main architect— the Revolution of 1911— was not necessarily “the greatest event since Waterloo” as his wife was to describe it; he certainly brought his country out of the 4^th century to the 20^th century by his idealism and integrity.

Dr. Sun Yat Sen is well known in the history of China as the Father of Modern China. He was born on 27^th November, 1866 in a village near the city of Canton (Island of Macao). His father was a poor farmer. He had come under the influence of Christian missionaries and as converted to Christianity. Therefore, Sun had received some kind of modern light from the missionaries. At the age of 13, he went to Honolulu to join his elder brother, who had emigrated there some years before. He gained one advantage by going to this place. This was a bi city with some good educational institutions. Here he joined an English school, where he learnt English and other Western sciences. Thus he came into contact with the Western civilization. At the age of 17, he returned to China, but did not like to work as a peasant in the farm and decided to continue his studies. Under the influence of Christianity, he began to criticize old Chinese religions and openly mocked at the old Chinese traditions and idols kept in the Chinese temples. Many villagers did not like it and even wanted to kill the young revolutionary. Ultimately his parents sent him out. He went to Hongkong and joined Queen’s Medical College. At the age of 18, he was baptized as a Christian. By 1892 A.D., he became a Medical graduate. During his studies, he came very close to one of his teachers, Sir James Cantlie, who was to play an important role in his life and also became his biographer. He joined his medical profession, but soon gave it up for political activities. He dedicated himself for the rebirth of his country into the modern world as maker of its own destiny.

Political activities of Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen: In 1894 A.D., he formed a Secret Society with the object of uplifting the Chinese people by education, better cultivation of the soil, and more efficient production of goods. Branches of this society were organized at various points. As this Society was secret, its members had to act in a very cautious manner. A number of efforts were made to carry out a revolution, but these efforts failed. With the failure of each attempt, a number of its members were caught and hanged by the government. A prize was fixed at the head of Dr. Sun yat Sen. He fled away to Japan. This was the time when China was being defeated in the first Sino-Japanese War (1894-95). The Japanese promised to help him and thus his movement gained some importance in Japan, where a large number of Chinese were living, who also provided him financial support.

In England: In 1896 A.D., he went to London. Here he met a number of Chinese revolutionaries. While he was walking on one of the streets of London, a number of persons caught hold of him and he was dragged into the Chinese Embassy. The secret object of this act was to take him to China where he was to be hanged. At this stage he began to cry and was successful in conveying the news of his imprisonment to Sir James Cantlie. Sir James wrote to the British ministry and sought its help for the release of Dr. Sun, but with no success. So he wrote to the Editor of the London Times, a leading newspaper in England. The publication of this letter had a great effect. Soon the Govt. of England also acted and forced the Chinese government to release Dr. Sun. From England, he went to U.S.A. and here he collected a huge amount for the revolutionaries. Later on, he returned to Japan and from here he began to encourage the revolutionary activities. Although his one after the other attempts failed, he did not gave up his sustained efforts for overthrowing the Manchus. The result was that within a short time, the revolutionary movement began to gain momentum. In the meantime, the Railway agitation became quite serious. The issue of granting concessions of local railways brought the Chinese revolution of 1911 A.D. At that time Sun-yat-Sen was in U.S.A. It was here that he read the news of a revolt in China. In the beginning, he did not take it to be a serious one. He continued to collect money for the revolutionaries. From U.S.A., he came to England and from here to China. After the success of the revolution of 1911, the Republic was established in China and Dr. Sun-yat-Sen became its first President. On January 1, 1912 A.D., he entered Nanking, the Republican capital and received a salute of 21 guns. It appeared that within a short time, the whole of China would be under the control of the Republican Government. But this was not to happen, as Yuan-shi-Kai was playing his cards quite well and was creating difficulties for the Republicans. Ultimately, Dr. Sun found a solution by stepping down in favour of Yuan.

On February 12, 1912 A.D., the Manchu Emperor declared to abdicate in favour of the Republic. Thus the Imperial dynasty came to an end in China and a Republic was established in its place.

Setback to Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen: Although Yuan became the President, he was not a Republican from the core of his heart. Therefore, within a short time, he dissolved the Chinese Parliament as he was willing to become an Emperor and wanted to establish his own dynasty. This made the people of China very desperate. They decided to revolt against him. Soon China was divided into two camps. One camp, led by Dr. Sun, was in favour of the Republic, while the second camp was on Yuan’s side. The Republicans raised the banner of revolt under Dr. Sun, but were badly defeated and Dr. Sun was forced to flee to Japan. In the meantime, Yuan-Shih-Kai died and thus China was saved from a long civil-war. After Yuan’s death, Sun-Yat-Sen returned to China and was successful in winning the support of some war-lords (Tuchuns).

Congress of K.M.T. (1923 A.D.): In September, 1922 Dr. Sun was taking rest in Shanghai after suffering from illness. There he called a meeting of eminent nationalist leaders. It was decided to call a Congress of Nationalist leaders. In January 1923 A.D., the Kuo-Min-Tang manifesto was released which gave a programme of Democracy. This programme enunciated the principle “of striving for the revision of existing treaties to restore China to the status of a free and equal member in the family of nations” as a basic principle of the K.M.T. as far its foreign policy was concerned.

 Soviet help obtained: Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen approached various nations of the world seeking their support. He was educated and had spent a larger part of his life in the West, but unfortunately no Democratic country came to his rescue. It was only Lenin’s Soviet Government, who promised to help him. Today American historians repent for not helping China at that time. They are of the opinion, and are quite right, that had U.S.A. then helped Dr. Sun and his K.M.T. at that critical juncture, China would not have been Red today. Soviet Union not only gave financial assistance, but even sent advisors like Borodin. He advised Dr. Sun to organize K.M.T. on the lines of Soviet Communist Party. Further, it was decided that the Communists of China coud become members in their individual capacity of the K.M.T. It was under this clause that Mao-Tse-Tung became a member of the K.M.T. Thus the K.M.T. and the C.C.P. (Chinese Communist Party) were united under the leadership of Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen. For some years the relations between the two parties continued in an amicable manner.

Efforts to unite China: At that time, China was under the rule of the war-lords, who had become semi-independent under Yuan-Shih-Kai. After his death, they had virtually assumed independence. It was quite difficult to suppress their power. Dr. Sun tried to suppress their power, but unfortunately had no independent army with himself. Consequently, most of the China remained free, consisting of small independent principalities. To meet this new challenge, Dr. Sun adopted two policies:

-          Firstly, he started a military academy and Gen. Chiang-Kai-Shek was made its Principal.

-          Secondly, he won the friendship of one war-lord and defeated the other. Thus, he crushed the power of the war-lords.

Within a short period, he achieved many successes. He was carrying on his work very vigorously, when unfortunately he fell ill and died on 12^th March, 1925 A.D.

Political Philosophy of Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen

In nationalist China, the writings of Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen occupied the same cardinal position as those of Marx and Lenin in Soviet Union. The heart of Sen’s teachings is to be found in its favour in the series of lectures delivered in 1924, on the three People’s Principles (San Min Chu). These three principles correspond to Lincoln’s famous Trinity of Government “of the people, by the people and for the people,” and are commonly translated as Nationalism, Democracy and People’s Livelihood. Although Sun Fu, the son of Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen prefers to translate them as National Democracy, Political Democracy and Economic Democracy.

Sun’s lectures, as pointed out by himself, were hastily prepared and even improved without adequate use of reference-books, and at a time when Sun’s health was not very good. Admirers of Dr. Sun point out that inspite of these facts they prove that these were the real needs of China in those days.

1.       Nationalism: At the time when Sun-Yat-Sen delivered his lectures, he was strongly under the influence of his Russian advisor, Michael Borodin. In his lectures on Nationalism, he strongly attacked Imperialism and Capitalism, and praised Soviet Russia and Communism for their attacks on these evils. In the Marxist way, he expected that a Civil war would break out among the Capitalist countries.

Sun-Yat-Sen found the source of China’s inability to resist foreign imperialism in the absence of the strong feelings of Nationalism, and his lectures constitute an attempt to build such a feeling by an emotional attack on foreign misdeeds and by a glorification of China’s traditional greatness. Dr. Sun said, “China was a heap of loose sand.” He felt that the lack of a strong national bond made it possible for other countries to take advantage of China’s weakness and turn the land into a sub-colony. This colony was dominated by unjust principles. It was facing three kinds of foreign pressure:

-          Firstly, there was the pressure of foreign population. Japan had been trying to settle her extra-population in China.

-          Secondly, there was political pressure. This meant that the foreigners had seized some part of China’s territory in the Battle of Concessions.

-          Thirdly, there was the economic pressure, which meant that the foreigners had obtained many trade and railway concessions.

Unless China met these different pressures, he thought that within a few years China would lose her independence. In this way, Dr. Sun warned the Chinese that Nationalism was an important thing. If it was not acquired within a short time, the Chinese would lose their national character. Thus he laid stress upon encouraging the feelings of Nationalism in China. Therefore, Sun-Yat-Sen said that 400 million Chinese (population of China in 1910) must become imbued with a spirit of nationalism. He wanted that Chinese should assume the leadership of the oppressed people in the world. (Japan in later years tried to do so when she raised the slogan of ‘Asia for the Asians.’) The spirit of nationalism would arise only if the Chinese realized the danger which their nation was facing from foreign enemies. Chinese nationalism, however, in contrast to European nationalism was to be based upon the traditional Chinese philosophy of (i) loyalty (ii) filial piety (iii) kindness (iv) love (v) faithfulness (vi) justice (vii) harmony and (viii) peace. Such a philosophy, Dr. Sun maintained, was not a threat to the rest of the world. This would, according to him, establish harmony between the Western Sciences and the ancient Chinese traditions.

2.       Democracy: The second principle of his principle of his philosophy was Democracy. Sun-Yat-Sen said that the present age was an age of democracy throughout the world. In order to become a strong nation, China must be democratic. However, Dr. Sun was not in favour of the Western form of democracy. He was particularly critical of the idea of liberty. He insisted that China had rather too much of liberty. He insisted that the Chinese must maintain some kind of discipline. He also criticized the Western idea of Equality. He thought that men were basically unequal. Kings were bad as they exaggerated a natural inequality. Sun-Yat-Sen believed that there were three types of people or classes:

-          Those who see first. They are the creators and discoverers, who possess superior wisdom and insight and can view the things themselves.

-          Those who see later. They are the people who see only when they are instructed by other.

-          Those who never see.

Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen asserted that in the Western democracy no such distinction was made. Therefore, it was a very improper kind of democracy. Under such circumstances, Dr. Sun proposed that democracy should be introduced in China in three stages. Firstly, those people who could see should be allowed to run the Government. Later on, those people who can see when instructed, should be allowed to take part in the administration. Lastly, the remaining part of the people should be given a chance to participate in the administration of the country.

3.       People’s Livelihood: In his lectures on Democracy, Dr. Sun had made it clear that the two functions of a democratic government were (i) to defend the people against foreign enemies, and (ii) to provide them with economic needs. Therefore, the third principle of Dr. Sun’s philosophy was to transform the Chinese economy. Sun said that it was the responsibility of the State to provide food, clothing, shelter and means of travel for everyone, i.e. to ensure them livelihood. To Dr. Sun, livelihood was the central problem of the society. Sun-Yat-Sen had been greatly influenced by the philosophy of Karl Marx, but he wanted to maintain the tradition of harmony and peace in the Chinese society. Therefore, he maintained that there should be an adjustment of economic interest. Sun-Yat-Sen wanted to modernize China. He knew that without the foreign help, it was not possible to develop China within a short period. Therefore, he wanted to encourage both the Chinese as well the foreign capitalists for the development of China. Dr. Sun thought that two things were essential for the realization of the people’s livelihood— the equalization of land ownership and government control of capital. The two problems were closely connected for, according to Dr. Sun, China’s greatest capitalists were the owners of the land, but not the owners of factories. Therefore, he felt that in a very proper manner, it should be distributed among the actual peasants. He felt that every Chinese was a very poor man. Therefore, he felt, that not only should the land be distributed properly, but scientific methods should be adopted for increase in production. He was of the view that the government should encourage agriculture and reduce taxes on the poor farmers.

Proper distribution of Food Supply: Dr. Sun felt that proper measures be adopted for the proper distribution of food supplies. Food stuffs should be properly conserved. He also suggested irrigation, rotation of crops, protection against floods, better machinery, fertilizers, eradication of pests, preservation of food and better transportation facilities could improve production. Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen suggested that these improvements should be achieved through Straight Action.

Borrowing of Foreign Capital: As China was a poor country, it had to borrow money from other countries. Without this help, China could not set up huge factories.

Impact of Sun’s Teachings: The teachings of Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen had a deep impact upon the future course of history. The Kuo-Min-Tang government adopted a new constitution, which was based upon the three principles of Sun-Yat-Sen (San-Min-Chu I). “It is  Democratic Republic, governed for the people and by the people.” Similarly article 142 of the constitution provided that “natonal economy shall be based on the principle of people’s livelihood, for it was the distribution of land ownership and capital (money) in order to obtain a well balanced development of Public Economy and Private livelihood.”

Article 143 provided that “All land within the territory of the Republic of China shall in principle belong to whole body of citizens. Private ownership of land, acquired by the people in accordance with law shall be protected and restricted by law. Privately owned land shall be liable to taxation according to its value and government may buy such land. ”

In 1949 A.D., when the Communists acquired the Chinese power, they also adopted many of the principles of Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen. It is a matter of great importance that both the Communists and the K.M.T. Party regard Dr. Sun-Yat-Sen as the ‘Father of the modern Chinese nation.’ 

Nur Jahan and her reactions in the administration

Mehrun-nisa was married to Mughal Emperor, Jahangir in 1611 A.D, about four years after the death of her former husband, Sher Afghan. The Emperor was so much captivated by her charms that he conferred upon her the title of Nur Mahal and soon after that of Nur Jahan. As soon as Nur Jahan became Empress, she acquired an extra-ordinary influence upon the Emperor. Her influence increased day by day and with the passage of time, Jahangir became a mere tool in her hands and she became the paramount power in the State; she virtually began to exercise the power of sovereignty. Therefore, the period from 1611 A.D. to 1627 A.D. is considered as the reign of Nur Jahan rather than of Jahangir.

In the first instance, Nur Jahan installed her relatives to high offices of the State. Her father, Ghias Beg, who was a Mansabdar of 2,000 Zat and 500 Sawar in 1611 A.D, was raised to the rank of 7,000 Zat and 7,000 Sawar in 1619 A.D. He was given the title of Itmad-ud-Daula and raised to the high place and position of the Prime Minister. Her brother, Asaf Khan, who held the Mansab of 500 Zat and 100 Sawar upto 1611 A.D, was also promoted to the rank of 6000 Zat and 6000 Sawar in 1622 A.D, and was also appointed as the Finance Minister. He was a person of good intellect in politics and administration, and as Dr. Beni Prasad states, “As a financier, he stood unsurpassed in the Mughal empire.” Khurram, who was the favourite of Nur Jahan in early stages, was also patronized by her. His Mansab was raised to 30,000 Zat and 20,000 Sawar in honour of his victory in the Deccan. The title of Shah Jahan was also bestowed upon him.

She got her share with the Emperor in exercising her power and prerogatives of sovereignty. She got her name struck upon the coins. Of all the Farmans having the Royal Seal and signature, the Queen Begum (Nur Jahan) was jointly attached. She often appeared in the Jharokha along with the Emperor and listened to the complaints of her subjects. According to the author of Intikhab-i-Jahangiri, “Nothing was wanting to make her an absolute manner but the reading of Khutba in her name.”

Nur Jahan exercised full control on administration. All high appointments, promotions, transfers, postings and dismissals were done with consent. She took keen interest in the working of every department of administration and sent orders to ministers and officials, who were the highest nobles and dignitaries of the State, presented themselves before her and listened to her dictates. A word from her could make or marr the career of any one of them. Nur Jahan decided the question of war and peace, and also wielded judicial powers and could pardon or punish anyone. She was to V.A. Smith, “a power behind the throne.”

It was entirely the privilege of Nur Jahan to make grants of land to women. She could grant jagirs and also withdraw such grants. In this capacity, she helped many poor orphans and widows. Her influence was decisive to men. She easily persuaded the Emperor to grant or withhold the grant of jagir of a particular noble or officer. 

Jahangir was so much under the influence of his queen that he was virtually a tool in her hands. He himself wrote so, “I have bestowed sovereignty on Nur Jahan who is wise enough to conduct the affairs of the State. I require nothing beyond a bottle of wine and a piece of meat to keep myself merry.” Dr. Smith remarks, “Nur Jahan was a real power behind the throne. She kept Jahangir under her influence and herself employed all royal powers in State affairs. High placed officials and amirs of the State were always vigilant to carry t her orders because she could make or marr them according to her sweet will.”

In 1612 A.D, Nur Jahan’s niece, Arjunamand Banu Begum, was married to Prince Khurram. Speaking of the political importance of this marriage, Dr. Beni Prasad observes, “It symbolized the alliance of Nur Jahan, Itmad-ud-Daula and Asaf Khan with the heir apparent. For next ten years, this clique of four supremely capable persons practically ruled the Empire. What had been called Nur Jahan’s sway is really the sway of these four personages.”

The period of Nur Jahan’s influence is usually considered in two divisions. The first was from 1611 A.D. to 1622 A.D, when her parents were still alive and exercised a wholesome restraint upon her ambitions, when Jahangir himself was more or less an invalid and full event was given to strife and faction. In the first period, Khurram and Nur Jahan were in alliance, while in the second period they were antagonized to each other. The marriage of Shah Jahan with Nur Jahan’s daughter from Sher Afghan – Ladli Begum – in 1620 A.D, introduced a fresh complication. Under these circumstances, the division of the court into parties was inevitable. At first, they were only two – the Junta and its opponents. Later on, when the Junta itself broke up, there were much more. Mahabat Khan throughout the period played an important part and stood forth as the champion of the older nobility and at one time went to the extent of advising the Emperor against the party in power. The author of the Intikhab-i-Jahangir Shahi says, “The whole world is surprised that such a wise and sensible emperor as Jahangir should permit a man to have so great an influence over him.”  He also added that in his opinion it was “now very advisable to liberate Prince Khusrav from prison. Mahabat Khan championed the cause of popular and pathetic party struggle that was brewing at the court. But his bold counsel appears to have taken his good party by the Emperor, though its effect was ephemeral.” The Emperor acted in some measure upon the advice of Mahabat till he arrived in Kashmir, that if Malik Mahabat had advised him simultaneously to the same effect, this war would have made no permanent impression upon him.”

Nur Jahan took up the whole power of the government into her own hands. She made particular endeavours to make Jahangir give up his vices, and this cast upon him her good moral effect, but her influence in the political sphere was quite averse because she began to abuse her power. In order to increase and maintain her influence and position, she married her daughter, Ladli Begum, with Jahangir’s son, Shahriyar. She began to put in her strong efforts to make Shahriyar the successor of Jahangir, rather than Prince Khurram.

She added to Jahangir’s difficulties all the more. She injected poison in the body politics of the royal court simply for the sake of the achievement of success in her political ends. She turned hostile to herself by appointing her father, brother and relatives to high posts. As a result of these tactics, revolts began to take place in the country and several parts of the Mughal Empire began to become independent. This caused to Jahangir great anxiety and it became rather difficult for him to pass his last days peacefully.

The first consequence of Nur Jahan’s policy of favouritism was that the Mughals lost their control over Kandahar. In 1622 A.D, Shah Abbas, the ruler of Iran, took advantage of the political condition in India and occupied Kandahar. Nur Jahan, with a view to get rid of Prince Khurram, ordered him to recapture Kandahar. But the Prince, who well understood the tactics of Nur Jahan, refused to comply with the orders of the Queen and consequently Kandahar was lost by the Mughals.

The second consequence of Nur Jahan’s policy was that Prince Khurram revolted against his father in 1623 A.D. Nur Jahan was bent upon getting the throne for her son-in-law, Prince Shahriyar, after the death of Jahangir. Thus when Khurram refused to go to Kabul under her orders, she exalted Jahangir against him to a good deal. Royal orders were, therefore, issued for Prince Khurram to present at the Royal Court. Khurram was, at that time, the Governor of Deccan. When he received these orders, he at once made out that some kind of foul game was going to be played on him. He, therefore, revolted and marched from the Deccan towards Agra to take possession of the Royal treasury. But Prince Parvez and the famous general, Mahabat Khan, defeated him at Balochpur. He had to return to Deccan, and once again made preparations and advanced towards the East. He occupied Bengal and Bihar, but Mahabat Khan inflicted a severe defeat on him. Now being tired of the war, he surrendered himself in 1625 A.D. and sent his two sons – Dara and Aurangzeb – to the royal court. Jahangir pardoned him, but Shah Jahan continued to stay in the Deccan till 1627 A.D. i.e. the death of Jahangir.

Mahabat Khan was a famous and great general of Jahangir. Nur Jahan wanted to reduce his growing influence in the royal court in every possible way. She, therefore, got orders issued to Mahabat Khan by the Mughal emperor that he should appear in the royal court. Mahabat had already expected some kind of harassment in store for him. Consequently, he revolted in 1626 A.D. According to Dr. Ishwari Prasad, “Fully prepared for any contingency, Mahabat collected four or five thousand Rajputs and started for court.”

When Jahangir and Nur Jahan were going to Kabul, Mahabat Khan besieged the imperial camp on the banks of Jhelum and made Jahangir a captive, but Nur Jahan managed to escape.

As the Mughals found themselves in no match to the Rajputs, Nur Jahan acted very cleverly. She surrendered to Mahabat Khan and was allowed to join her husband n captivity. But she managed to cause mutual differences among the soldiers of Mahabat and freed herself. When Mahabat found himself in a tight corner, he rushed towards Lahore. Later on, he proceeded towards Thatta in Sind, where it was heard that Shah Jahan had laid a siege and had, thus, created a new problem for the emperor.

Jahangir died on October 28, 1627 A.D. Nur Jahan proclaimed Shahriyar the new emperor at Lahore. But Shah Jahan with the help of Asaf Khan, invaded Lahore and took Shahriyar a prisoner. Thus he himself became the Mughal emperor and Nur Jahan found it in her favour to submit.

Nur Jahan forms as the pivot on which the history of the rest of the reign turns. The rebellions of Shah Jahan and Mahabat Khan were primarily the reactions against the activities of Nur Jahan. To quote Dr. Beni Prasad, “No figure in the medieval history has been shrouded in such romance as the name of Nur Jahan calls to the mind. No incident in the reign of Jahangir has attracted such attention as his marriage with Nur Jahan. For full fifteen years that celebrated lady stood forth as the most striking and most powerful personality in the Mughal Empire. ”